Disability Management Practices in Canada

Table of Contents Introduction Work-life balance programs Paramedical and physiotherapy program Insurance programs Offering modified work Conclusion Works Cited Introduction Health, productivity, and well-being of employers and workers in the contemporary society are becoming increasingly vital aspects. The economic, emotional, and social costs of illnesses and injuries are so severe that organisations and governments across the globe are trying to establish practices and policies to alleviate these costs (Akabas and Gates 9).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Disability Management Practices in Canada specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One of the practices that the government and organisations are adopting is Disability Management (DM). Disability management aims at assisting employees that suffer from illnesses or injuries while in their places of work. Initially, organisations could take staffs suffering from illnesses or injuries to offsite rehabilitation facilities. Nevertheless, the government and organisations are now involved in assisting the affected staff members within an organisation to ensure that their productivity is not affected (Akabas and Gates 11). Numerous countries are currently introducing disability management practices in workplaces, for instance, Canada, Australia, Britain, and the United States. Some of the practices include work-life balance programs, paramedical and physiotherapy programs, insurance programs, and offering modified work to employees who suffer from disabilities. This paper will focus on some of the best disability management practices employed in Canada. Work-life balance programs According to a study conducted on employees that take long before resuming to work after injuries or illnesses, the more such employees stay out of their workplaces, the more their chances of returning to work decrease. Employees that are out of work for over two years h ave 10 per cent chances of returning to the workplaces (Akabas and Gates 12). The work-life balance program is one of the best disability management practices. The program ensures that employees have enough time to relax after working and take adequate leave. This move helps in ensuring that employees do not suffer from work-related problems like stress, depression, and other mental illnesses. A work-life balance program is one of the disability management practices aimed at helping employees cope with the challenges encountered during and after an illness or injury. Whenever an employee suffers an injury or work-related illness and takes long at home, it becomes hard for such an employee to return to the workplace and associate with other employees (Akabas and Gates 13-17). Work-life balance program as one of the disability management practices entails coming up with modalities to accommodate an employee prior to his or her absence.Advertising Looking for report on business e conomics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Before the affected employee is allowed to take leave to cope with the illness or injury, the institution comes up with a program to modify the work schedule or workplace for the affected employee. At times, an employee may not be willing to return to his or her initial place of work due to the humiliation s/he went through initially (Akabas and Gates 19-24). Consequently, institutions with numerous branches may offer the affected employee a chance to work in a different branch. Besides changing the workplace, firms may work with the affected employee to come up with a work schedule that suits him or her, thus ensuring that s/he has adequate time to rest and attend to other personal duties. Through work-life programs, employers establish a work schedule with the help of the affected staff. In return, the staff members feel confident about the company as they acknowledge its concern. Wheneve r an employee takes long to return to his or her workplace after an illness or injury, s/he further suffers from the disgrace of the absence. Besides, it becomes hard to relate with other staff members on returning since s/he fears their reaction. Work-life balance programs seek to alleviate these challenges. They help in ensuring that employees return to work with limited challenges. The program helps in establishing an appropriate method of reintegrating the affected employees into a firm. Besides, the program establishes a working schedule that ensures that staff members have enough time out of their workplaces thus ensuring that they do not suffer from work-related problems. Paramedical and physiotherapy program Besides the work-life balance programs, the government and Canadian organisations are embracing paramedic and physiotherapy programs as another disability management practice. Institutions are turning to physicians to help them in ensuring that staff members that suffer injuries or illnesses at workplaces receive the best treatment and return to workplaces at the right time (Bruyà ¨re and Shrey 227). In the past, employees were only allowed to return to work if their employers learnt that they were capable of handling all job functions. The best thing with paramedical and physiotherapy program is that physicians help firms in coming up with varied accommodations, limitations, and restrictions, thus helping employees return to work within the shortest period after suffering from illnesses or injuries. Paramedical and physiotherapy program is a disability management program that Canadian organisations established to promote cooperation between employers and employees in the event of disabilities or illnesses (Bruyà ¨re and Shrey 22-234). Through the help of physicians, employers and employees come up with strategies to ensure that employees recover quickly from their illnesses or injuries thus returning to work.Advertising We will write a cust om report sample on Disability Management Practices in Canada specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Physicians assist firms to come up with medical inputs like limitations and restrictions to ensure that employees do not suffer from work-related injuries or illnesses. Moreover, the limitations and restrictions help in ensuring that staff members do not resume working while they still suffer from the illness. Physiotherapists help institutions in monitoring the recovery of the affected employees and help organisations in establishing a treatment program for the affected ones. Besides treating the affected employees, the program helps firms in coming up with strategies to prevent chances of other staff members suffering from the same problems (Bruyà ¨re and Shrey 237-242). Organisations use Paramedical and physiotherapy program as one of their disability management practices. Through the help of physicians and physiotherapists, institutions come up with programs to help their employees deal with all kinds of challenges that render them incapable of offering their services to an institution. The program entails establishing limitations and restrictions to ensure that employees do not engage in activities that subject them to health problems. Moreover, it involves treating the affected staff and helping them to recover from the illnesses, thus returning to work on time. Physicians and physiotherapists are indispensable instruments in helping organisations come up with efficient return-to-work programs. In a bid to enhance the success of paramedical and physiotherapy program, firms should establish a system that ensures timely correspondence among employees, employers, and physicians. Moreover, organisations should monitor their staffs regularly to make sure that they identify those suffering early enough and inform the physicians for timely and appropriate response. Insurance programs In Canada, employers work in collab oration with insurers in dealing with disability management. The role played by insurers in helping the employees cope with a disability is of immense help to firms. Insurers help in ensuring that employees encounter a smooth process when returning or leaving the workplace (Creen 5). Moreover, they assist in ensuring that employees do not encounter challenges when switching from one category of disability to another. Insurers are increasingly coming up with measures to address the ever-changing claims situation.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The benefit of insurance is that it helps employees receive their claims without difficulties, thus being capable of accessing medical attention on time (Creen 7). In return, employees do not take a lot of time away from the workplace. Another benefit of this program is that it saves employees from discrimination by ensuring that confidential information about their health does not leak to the employers. Insurance program involves a healthy interaction between the insurance agents and employers. With assistance from employers, insurers come up with tailored disability management programs for various employees. The insurer allocates a devoted disability team to an organisation. This team works closely with employers to identify the challenges facing employees and come up with measures to address the same. In addition, through this program, insurers help firms come up with absence management practices and create a stable return-to-work formula (Creen 6). Employers and insurers attend regular workshops, which equip them with requisite skills for dealing with intricate disabilities like mental disorders. The program gives employers and insurers an opportunity to monitor how the affected employees are responding to treatment and organise for further consultations, thus ensuring that employees recover from the disabilities within the shortest time possible. Currently, insurers are working with employers to establish rehabilitation programs and early intervention mechanisms to facilitate in curbing disabilities (Creen 7-9). Besides, they are establishing training and mentorship programs to help employees deal with challenges that result in disabilities. Insurance program as one of the disability management practices helps Canadian employees receive timely medical attention whenever they suffer from any disability at workplaces. Employers work with insurers to ensure that employees receive financial assistance within the shortest time possible. Besides, they monitor e mployees to see that they recover from the disability and organise for further consultations in case they realise that an employee is not recovering as expected. The insurance program not only helps in addressing the disability problems that employees face in Canadian institutions, but also in avoiding chances of employee discrimination by protecting confidential information about their health. Offering modified work One of the key features of disability management practices is offering modified work to employees suffering from any disability. Rather than dismissing the affected employee, an organisation may make some alterations on job specifications of the affected employee (Westmorland and Buys 31). Modification may entail cutting down on the workload, reducing the number of hours worked, or assigning the affected employee to a less demanding task. The main reason why this practice is among the best disability management practices is that, it helps institutions maintain their pro ductivity by ensuring that they continue exploiting the affected employees’ skills. Besides, the practice saves the company from the costs associated with hiring and training new employees (Westmorland and Buys 33). Another benefit of offering modified work to employees suffering from disabilities is that it helps in reducing chances of firms entering into conflicts with employees, which may ruin the organisational reputation. In Canada, most organisations turn to work modification as one of the disability management practices. Some of the factors that lead to employees suffering from disabilities include workload and the number of hours worked per week. Employees working in highly demanding jobs tend to suffer from numerous disabilities like backache (Westmorland and Buys 35-38). Therefore, to deal with this disability, firms reduce the number of hours the affected employee works in a week. At times, organisations may move the affected employee to a less demanding job to fac ilitate in his or her recovery. Moreover, they make the working environment more flexible to help the employee take a rest at intervals during the working hours. Firms allow their employees to have job control as a mechanism to reduce chances of most of them suffering from work-related disabilities (Westmorland and Buys 39-40). Employers allow their staff to modify their workplaces to enhance their working conditions. Offering modified work is one of the strategies of disability management practices in Canada. Organisations modify works for individuals suffering from disabilities as a way of helping them return to their full potential with limited difficulties. The practice entails reducing the workload, number of hours the affected employee works for per week, and transferring the affected employee to a less demanding job. For effective disability management through offering modified work, it is imperative that employers involve the affected employees in coming up with the most app ropriate modifications. Conclusion Organisations are currently switching to disability management practices as one of the methods of dealing with work-related injuries and disabilities. In Canada, organisations use numerous disability management practices. These practices include work-life balance programs, paramedic and physiotherapy programs, insurance programs, and offering modified work to employees who suffer from disabilities. All these measures facilitate in ensuring that employees who suffer from work-related disabilities return to work with limited difficulties. The practices help institutions overcome costs associated with hiring and training new employees; besides, they help organisations preserve their reputation by ensuring that they do not conflict with their employees. Works Cited Akabas, Sheila, and Lauren Gates. â€Å"Organisational commitment: the key to successful disability management.† American Rehabilitation 16.3 (2006): 9-24. Print. Bruyà ¨re, Susanne, and Donald Shrey. â€Å"Disability management in Industry: A Joint Labor-Management Process.† Rehabilitation Counselling Bulletin 34.3 (2007): 227-242. Print. Creen, Marg. â€Å"Best practices for disability management.† Journal of the Ontario  Occupational Health Nurses Association 2.4 (2002): 5-9. Print. Westmorland, Muriel, and Nicholas Buys. â€Å"A comparison of disability management practices in Australian and Canadian workplaces.† Works 23.1 (2004): 31-41. Print. This report on Disability Management Practices in Canada was written and submitted by user Karly Bernard to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Pond Weed Investigation essays

Pond Weed Investigation essays The effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis in Canadian Pondweed Elodea sp. In this investigation I plan to investigate how temperature effects the rate of photosynthesis in Canadian pond weed, this will be achieved by comparing the amount of oxygen produced by the pondweed at different temperatures. It will be a fair test and my only independent variable will be the different temperatures of water the pondweed will be submerged in. I am choosing different temperatures as my independent variable because I know from past experiments that different temperatures affect the enzyme activity and therefore the rate of photosynthesis. This experiment is also the most straightforward to set up and carry out, this means that extra time will be available to spend on repeats and extremely accurate results. All other factors of the experiment remain constant; the weight of pond weed, the light density, the colour of the light, the method of collecting the results (measuring the volume of displaced water in an upturned measuring tube) and the acclimation time of 2 minutes. The dependent variable is the volume of oxygen produced by the pondweed, this is measured by the amount of water displaced in an upturned measuring tube. The volume of oxygen produced is directly proportional to the rate o f photosynthesis, so having worked out the rate I can compare the different temperatures. First I will set up the apparatus, this consists of: a water bath at 20Â °c, in this bath is a fermenting tube with the sample of pondweed inside and 20cm3 of water. The delivery tubing leads to another water container and to an upturned measuring tube. I leave the pondweed to photosynthesise for two minutes and then record the level of the water in the measuring tube, the pondweed is needed to be left for the two minute period to allow it to start functioning at the temperature. I then leave the pondweed to respire for three minutes, after this time I ...

FDA regulation and application submission process for new drugs Term Paper

FDA regulation and application submission process for new drugs - Term Paper Example Developing a drug for wide use such as a breast cancer drug follows a certain method. The development of any medication is test intensive. We send evidence from these tests to prove the drug is safe and effective. Experts will review our data. Once this independent review establishes the products health benefits outweigh the risks, the drug may be approved. Before a drug can be tested in people, we perform laboratory and animal tests to investigate how it works and how likely it is to be safe. The human testing is conducted to investigate effectiveness. Orphan drug development is similar in some ways but different in others. To apply for orphan drug designation, we must complete a number of additional steps. First, we have to specify the disease. Next, we must submit the appropriate documents including our name and address, our contact person with title, address, and phone number as well as the name of the drug. Furthermore, we need to provide a description of the target disease, the indications for use of the drug, and the reasons why the drug is necessary to treat the disease. We must provide specific scientific rationale including all data from cynical and nonclinical studies and additional sources available whether positive, negative, or inconclusive. Copies of pertinent unpublished and published papers are required. We must document how the disease affects fewer than 200,000 people in the United States. For a drug intended for a disease affecting 200,000 or more people, we must provide rationale why there would be no expectation that costs of research and development of the drug for the indication c ould be recovered by sales of the drug in the United States. ... tionale why there would be no expectation that costs of research and development of the drug for the indication could be recovered by sales of the drug in the United States. In essence, we would follow all of the protocols of developing the drug for non-orphan status but with a few additional considerations. Questions remain as to why it might be prudent to develop the new drug as an orphan. First, there are certain government incentives to following this route. Government provides tax breaks, enhanced patent protection and marketing rights, as well as clinical research financial subsidization. Furthermore, it provides slightly relaxed statistical standards under the assumption that subjects with the disease in question may not be plentiful enough to derive a very large sample for testing. Still, there are ethical considerations. What if more people are helped otherwise We have a social responsibility to distribute a health benefiting drug to as many people who need it as possible. To develop under orphan drug protocol would limit the number breast cancer patients who might benefit from the drug. Although there are operational and financial motivations for developing the drug under the orphan guidelines, they should not necessarily be the only considerations that play into our decision. Thinking on certain questions about the prudence of following one drug development protocol versus another has been reported here. We have examined how ways to submit a drug application for a novel anticancer molecule showing evidence of efficacy in leiomyosarcoma. We briefly outlined the differences in approaches to develop this product. One approach is that of applying for orphan drug development. The other is that of developing the drug for breast cancer. We also explored certain

JBuilder Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

JBuilder - Essay Example The JBuilder 2007 Turbo Edition offers a free turnkey developer-focused Java IDE which can easily be upgraded with JBuilders RAD productivity, code performance, and team development features. (CodeGearâ„ ¢ Announces New Developer-focused Release of Award-winning JBuilder ® 2007 Integrated Development Environment) JBuilder 2007 works more easily with Windows XP and Windows 2003 and also it includes a Team Server which can be helpful in the development and management of source code, project planning and also upgrading options are immense with JBuilder 2007. The current version of JBuilder is compatible with the older version and hence the developers can easily switch over to the latest version of JBuilder without many troubles. JBuilder and Microsoft’s Front Page are two HTML editors, but they are following entirely different philosophies in their approaches. Front Page follows the philosophy of WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) whereas the JBuilder going further with their philosophy which can even surprise the java developers with its immense capabilities. Front Page is capable of guiding the website designers who is in their beginning stages of web development; but its capabilities in managing a team of developers across the world are limited. But JBuilder can easily accomplish this mission. As most of the projects entering the business world at present require team involvements from different countries, especially because of the globalization policies, JBuilder is the choice for many developers at present. Web size problems seem to be most critical one when using Front Page. If the web size is too heavy it often cause errors while loading the page. If the internet connection is slow, the problem will be more complex. JBuilder has eliminated all such problems and even websites with heavy graphic files can be opened easily if it is developed using JBuilder because of JBuilder’s increased capabilities in handling

Discussion Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 33

Discussion - Coursework Example In this regards, APNs play a key role in enhancing EBP adoption as it remains more as an ideal rather than a reality in many clinical care setting. In my unit, an advanced practice nurse is important in enhancing the adoption of evidence-based practice through facilitating the appropriate organizational culture and leadership. It is crucial for the unit to appoint leaders and staff that recognize and value evidence-based practice and research utilization in improving care provision. This can be further achieved by educating the staff on the importance of EBP utilization and possible ways of adoption. Facilitation and support in the process are also crucial. Thus, an advanced practice nurse has a role in ensuring that the necessary resources and conditions are available to attain success in the unit. This includes the provision of the appropriate time of practicing EBP and ensuring that the correct number of staff (staffing) are available in enhancing the process. Moreover, the advanced practice nurse has a role in enhancing further research in my unit to determine any additional factors that may influence or facilitate the adop tion of EBP. Advanced practice nurse have been noted to be on the frontline of utilizing EBP in the clinical setting in promoting the patients safety and their knowledge is crucial in promoting such practices among other teams such as my unit (Gerrish et al., 2012). Fagerstrà ¶m, L., & Glasberg, A. L. (2011). The first evaluation of the advanced practice nurse role in Finland - the perspective of nurse leaders. Journal of Nursing Management, 19, 925–932. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2834.2011.01280.x Gerrish, K., Nolan, M., Mcdonnell, A., Tod, A., Kirshbaum, M., & Guillaume, L. (2012). Factors Influencing Advanced Practice Nurses’ Ability to Promote Evidence-Based Practice among Frontline Nurses. Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing, 9, 30–39.

Analysis of Response Surface Methodology (RSM)

Analysis of Response Surface Methodology (RSM) 1.3 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS 34, 35 Trans-Pacific Partnership economic framework agreement has clearly defined that many studies must be conducted to develop a formulation. Design of experiments (DOE) has proven to be an effective tool for formulation scientists throughout the many stages of the formulation process. At every step of formulation development, DOE can aid in making intelligent decisions. These steps include excipient compatibility studies, process feasibility studies, formulation optimization, process optimization, scale-up and manufacturing process characterization. Lastly, the product and manufacturing process must be validated before it is on the market. The word optimize is defined as, making as perfect, effective or functional as possible. Optimization may be interpreted as to find out the value of controllable independent variable, that gives the most desired value of dependent variables. The application of formulation optimization techniques is relatively new to the practice of pharmacy when used intelligently, with the common sense, these â€Å"statistical† methods will broaden the perspective of the formulation process. At the Preformulation stage, before any experiment is conducted certain problem arises, it is often not known before hand which variable will significantly influence the response. Screening designs and ANOVA helps to solve this problem. A second serious complication may arise with new excipients and new process factor, for which qualitative or quantitative effects are not known and are unpredictable. The following questions must be answered before choosing any design of experiment. The third complication is that formulated products, in particular dosage form has to confirm to several requirements, very often competing. The formulator has to trade off objectives and choose a compromise. A fourth problem is the lack of insight` to perform an adequate optimization studies. Above all in the performance of an optimization study, the formulation development scientist can also be a factor as personal variation. 1.3.1 Terms used in Design of experiments Variables These are the measurements, values, which are characteristics of the data. There are two types of variables; dependent variables and independent variables. Independent variables(X) are set in advance, which are not influenced by any other values e.g., Lubricants concentration, drug to polymer ratio, etc. Dependent variables(Y) are the outcome variables, influenced by the independent variables e.g., hardness, dissolution rate, etc. Factor Factor is an assigned variable such as concentration, temperature, lubricant agent, drug to polymer ratio, polymer to polymer ratio or polymer grade. A factor can be qualitative or quantitative. A quantitative factor has a numerical value to it for example, concentration (1%, 2%†¦ so on), drug to polymer ratio (1:1, 1:2†¦etc). Qualitative factors are the factors, which are not numerical value, for example, the polymer grade, humidity condition, type of equipment, etc. these are discrete in nature. Levels The levels of a factor are the values or designation assigned to the factor. For e.g. in concentration (factor) 1 % will be one level, while 2% will be another level. Two different plasticizers are levels for grade factor. Usually levels are indicated as low, middle or high level. Normally for ease of calculation the numeric and discrete levels are converted to –1 (low level) and +1 (high level).The general formula for this conversion is Where ‘X’ is the numeric value Response Response is mostly interpreted as the outcome of an experiment. It is the effect, which we are going to evaluate i.e. Disintegration time, duration of buoyancy, etc. Effect The effect of a factor is the change in response caused by varying the levels of the factor. This describes the relationship between various factors and levels. Interaction Interaction is also similar to effect, which gives the overall effect of two or more variables (factors) on a response. For example, the combined effect of lubricants (factor) and glidants (factor) on hardness (response) of a tablet. In the trial and error method, a lot of formulations have to be prepared to get a conclusion, which involves lots of money, time and energy. These can be minimized by the use of optimization technique. 1.3.2 Optimization Process Generally optimization process involves the following steps. Based on the previous knowledge or experience or from literature, the independent variables are determined and set in the beginning. Selection of a suitable model, based on the results of the factor, screening is done. The experiments are designed and conducted. The responses are analyzed by ANOVA, test on lack of fit, to get an empirical mathematical model for each individual response. The responses are screened, by using multiple criteria to get the values of independent variables. Experimental Design Experimental design is a statistical design that prescribes or advises a set of combination of variables. The number and layout of these design points within the experimental region, depends on the number of effects that must be estimated. Depending on the number of factors, their levels, possible interactions and order of the model, various experimental designs are chosen. Each experiment can be represented as a point within the experimental domain, the point being defined by its co-ordinate (the value given to the variables) in the space. 1.3.3 Response Surface Methodology Response surface methodology (RSM) is an experimental strategy that was developed in the 1950’s36. RSM is comprised of a group of mathematical and statistical techniques that are based on fitting experimental data generated from studies established using an experimental design, to empirical models and that are subsequently used to define a relationship between the responses observed and the independent input variables37, 38. RSM is able to define the effect of independent variables alone and in combination with the manufacturing processes under investigation. A typical RSM study begins initially with the definition of a problem to be investigated and involves establishing which variables and associated responses are to be studied, monitored, and measured and how these will be measured. A summary of the subsequent RSM approach includes36 Performance of the relevant DOE. Estimation of the coefficient in the relevant response surface equation. Checking of the adequacy of the equation to describe the fit. Studying the response surface to identify and evaluate the region(s) of interest. The term RSM originates from the graphical perspective generated after fitness of the mathematical model has been established 37, 38 with a graphical representation of the data presented primarily as a three-dimensional (3D) image and/or as contour plots39. The relationship between a response and an input variable can be described by Equation 1.1 y= f(x1, x2, x3†¦xn) +ÃŽ µ Where, y = relevant response f = unknown function of a response x1, x2,..xn = independent variables n= number of independent variables ÃŽ µ = statistical error that represents other sources of variability not accounted for by f Contour plot can be described as: i. Mound-shaped that has elliptical contours with a stationary point at the position of a maximum response. ii. Saddle-shaped that has a hyperbolic system of contours with a stationary point that is neither a maximum nor minimum point. iii. Constant (stationary) ridge response surface in which the contours are presented as concentric elongated ellipses with a stationary point in the region of the design region. iv. A rising (or falling) ridge response surface with a stationary point that is outside the design region 39. The stationary point is a combination of design variables where the surface presents as either a maximum and/or a minimum in all directions. If the stationary point is a maximum in one direction and minimum in another direction, the stationary point is termed a saddle point. When the surface is curved in one direction but is fairly constant and this is considered a ridge response 40. By plotting a response, y, against one or two input variables a surface, known as the response surface can be generated in two or three dimensions. In general the form of the function, f, is unknown and may be very complicated depending on the effect of the input variables on the response. Therefore RSM aims at approximating f by use of a suitable, ordered polynomial equation in some region(s) of the values for the independent process variables41. The mathematical or polynomial equations that describe the relationship(s) between the independent and dependent variables may be first, second or third order, depending on how the output variables or responses react to changes in the input variables. If the response is a linear function of the independent variables, then the function can be written as a first order model (Equation 1.2). In this model the response variables that fit a linear model are generally variables that are significantly affected by a small change in the value of the input factors and that exhibit little or no interaction(s) between the input variable terms. y= ÃŽ ²0+ ÃŽ ²1x1+ ÃŽ ²2x2+†¦..+ ÃŽ µ Second order equations are used to generate linear and quadratic response equations that exhibit interactions between the input factors and can be represented by Equation 1.3. y= ÃŽ ²0+ ÃŽ ²1x1+ ÃŽ ²2x2+ ÃŽ ²12x12+†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦+ ÃŽ µ It has been reported that second order models are also applicable to input factors that exhibit extensive variability over an experimental domain and these relationships are best described using Equation 1.4 y= ÃŽ ²0+ ÃŽ ²1x1+ ÃŽ ²2x2+ ÃŽ ²12x12+ ÃŽ ²11x12+ ÃŽ ²22x22+†¦..+ ÃŽ µ Where y= response x1, x2,..xn = input factors ÃŽ ²0= constant that represents the intercept ÃŽ ²i= coefficient of first order term ÃŽ ²ii= coefficient of second order term ÃŽ ²ij= coefficient of second order interaction The values of the coefficients in the model are generated through multiple linear regression analysis of the data that has been collected. A coefficient with a positive value points to an agonistic effect of the input factor on the response, whereas coefficients with negative values indicate an antagonistic effect. 1.3.4 Choice of Response Surface Design Central Composite Design (CCD) A CCD was originally presented by Box and Wilson and is based on a factorial design with additional points to estimate the curvature of that design. CCD encompasses a full factorial or fractional factorial approach which can be represented, as shown in Figure 1.1, as the eight corners of a cube. There are the six points, known as the axial or star points, located in the centre of each face of the cube with a final point located in the middle of the cube that is known as the centre point 37. The axial points are experimental runs where all but one of the factors to be investigated is set at the intermediate level under consideration. The axial points are all equidistant from the centre point and are denoted using the symbol, alpha (ÃŽ ±). The factors under consideration are usually investigated at five different levels and are always represented by coded values viz., -ÃŽ ±, -1, 0, +1 and +ÃŽ ±. Figure 1.1Schematic diagram representing the levels studied in a Central Composite Design The distance of the axial points from the centre point is dependent on the number of factors investigated in the design and is established using Equation 1.5. ÃŽ ± =2k/4 Where, k= the factor number ÃŽ ± = axial point The number of experiments required for a CCD approach is calculated using Equation 1.6 N= k2+ 2k+ C0 Where, N= the experiment number k= the factor number C0= the replicate number of the central point The number of experiments required in an experimental study is important as it determines how much data will be generated, in addition to being an indicator of the amount of time that will be required to conduct the study. Types of central composite design Central composite design can be divided into three types. Table 1.2 Types of central composite design Box-Behnken Design (BBD) The BBD describes a class of second-order designs based on a three-level incomplete factorial approach which are also represented as coded values viz., -1, 0 and +1 42 . In this design approach, the treatment combinations are located at the midpoint(s) of the edge of the process space and at the centre, as represented in Figure 1.2. Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram representing the levels studied in a Box-Behnken Design The number of experiments for Box-Behnken Designs can be calculated using Equation 1.7. N= 2k (k-1) +C0 Where, N= the number of experiments k= the factor number C0= the replicate number of the central point For experiments in which there are three or less input variables the BBD design offers some advantage over the CCD approach, in that a fewer number of experimental runs are required. However this advantage does not exist when four or more parameters are to be investigated. A further advantage of BBD is that it does not include the need to evaluate situations in which all factors are simultaneously held at their highest and lowest levels. The use of a BBD therefore allows a formulation scientist to avoid undertaking experiments that are to performed under extreme conditions and that may produce substandard results due to the inclusion of data generated from these extreme high and low levels 37. Doehlert Design The Doehlert design is an experimental design approach in which different factors can be studied at different levels simultaneously43. This aspect of the Doehlert design is an important characteristic when using some input variables that may be subject to restrictions such as for example cost or experimental constraints (limited amounts of raw material or limited amount of time available) thereby making it a practical and economic alternative to other, second-order experimental design approaches37.This design describes a circular domain of two input variables, a spherical domain for three input variables and a hyper-spherical space for situations in which more than three input variables are to be investigated and which highlights the uniformity of the input variables to be studied in the experimental domain 37. The schematic design space of a Doehlert design for two variables is shown in Figure 1.3, and is represented by a central point and six points of a regular hexagon. An interesting feature of the Doehlert design is that new factors may be introduced during the course of a study without losing relevant and/or valuable information from the data already generated from the experimental runs that have already been completed. Figure 1.3 Schematic diagram representing the levels studied in a Doehlert Design The number of experiments required for a Doehlert design is determined using Equation 1.8 37 N= k2+ k+ C0 Where, N= the number of experiments k= the factor number C0= the replicate number of the central point 1.3.5 Mathematical Optimization Optimization is a mathematical method used to determine an optimum response and is defined as the most advantageous state of existence of the system under investigation44. Multiple linear regression equations generated from statistically designed experiments provide a description of the change of a response with a change in input factors and further, allows for the determination of input variables that will produce an optimized response. A difficulty that occurs in optimization procedures is the need to establish a compromise between the anticipated response variables. This challenge is often encountered in the process of optimization of tablets where the optimum tablet may be one that has superior strength and little or no friability, yet must also have a short disintegration time. Often an increase in tablet hardness results in an increase in the disintegration time of a tablet and therefore a compromise between these contradictory response variables is necessary to achieve an optimized formulation. 1.3.6 Advantages of RSM The primary advantage of RSM in relation to classical experimental methods and approaches of data evaluation in which only one variable is investigated at a time, is that a large amount of information can be generated from a relatively small number of experiments 38. RSM is therefore less time and cost consuming than the classical approach that requires a large number of experiments to be conducted to be able to explain the behavior of a system 38, 39. A further advantage, with the use of RSM is that it is possible to observe interaction effects of the independent input parameters on the response(s) being monitored 38. The model equation that is generated from the data is able to be used to explain the effect of combinations of independent input variables on the outcome of a process or product. 1.3.7 Disadvantages of RSM A primary disadvantage of RSM is that fitting data to a second order polynomial for systems that contain some curvature is often not well accommodated by the second order polynomials that are produced. If the system cannot be explained by a first or second order polynomial, it may be necessary to reduce the range of independent input variables under consideration as this may then increase the accuracy of the model being considered38. Another disadvantage is that although RSM has the potential to evaluate interaction effects of the independent input parameters, it is unable to be used to explain why an interaction(s) has occurred (210). A further disadvantage is that RSM is poor at predicting the potential outcomes for a system operated outside the range of study under consideration45 1.3.8 Software for Design of experiments Many commercial software packages are available which are either dedicated to experimental design alone or are of a more general statistical type. Software’s dedicated to experimental designs DESIGN EXPERT ECHIP MULTI-SIMPLEX NEMRODW Software for general statistical nature SAS MINITAB

White Mans Image :: essays research papers

This program is part of the PBS series American Experience. In this episode, a critical eye is cast on the early efforts by Congress to "civilize" Native Americans. This homogenization process required the removal of Native American children from their homes and placing them in special Indian schools. Forced to stay for years at a time without returning home, children were required to eschew their own language and culture and learn instead the ways of the white man. Archival photographs and clips, newspaper accounts, journals, personal recollections, and commentary by historians relate the particulars of this era in American History and its ultimate demise. ~ Rose of Sharon Winter, All Movie Guide In 1875, Captain Richard Pratt began an ambitious experiment that involved teaching Indians in Florida to read and write English, putting them in uniforms and drilling them like soldiers. "Kill the Indian and save the man," was Pratt's motto. With the blessing of Congress, Pratt expanded his program by establishing the Carlisle School for Indian Students. Native Americans who attended these schools help tell the story of an experiment gone bad and its consequences for a generation of Indians. In 1875, Captain Richard Pratt escorted 72 Indian warriors suspected of murdering white settlers to Fort Marion in St. Augustine, Florida. Once there, Pratt began an ambitious experiment which involved teaching the Indians to read and wri te English, putting them in uniforms and drilling them like soldiers. "Kill the Indian and save the man," was Pratt's motto. News of Pratt's experiment spread. With the blessing of Congress, Pratt expanded his program by establishing the Carlisle School for Indian Students to continue his "civilizing" mission. Although liberal policy for the times, Pratt's school was a form of cultural genocide. The schools continued into the '30s until administrators saw that the promised opportunities for Indian students would not materialize, threat they would not become "imitation white men." Native Americans who attended the schools help tell the story of a humanist experiment gone bad, and its consequences for a generation of Discover the tragic, long-term consequences of attempts to "civilize" Native Americans in the 1870s at the Carlisle School for Indians.